http://modern-canadian-history.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_life_of_john_mccrae

The Author of In Flanders Fields

Lt. Col John McCrae was a Canadian poet, surgeon and author during World War I. He is best remembered for writing In Flanders Fields.

The grandson of Scottish immigrants, John McCrae was born in Guelph, Ontario on November 30, 1872.

John McCrae’s Early Life

In 1892, McCrae went to the University of Toronto to study for his Bachelor degree. However, he was forced to take a year off due to poor health.

While at the University of Toronto, McCrae joined the local militia, the Queen’s Own Rifles. He was eventually promoted to the rank of Captain and became a company commander.

In the summer of 1893, McCrae went to the Royal Military College in Kingston, Ontario where he began training to become an artillery officer.

In 1894, McCrae returned to Guelph, where he taught math and English at the Ontario Agricultural College, on the site of what is now the University of Guelph.

McCrae eventually returned to the University of Toronto to complete his undergraduate studies. Following his graduation, McCrae re-enrolled at the University of Toronto, this time with the intent to study medicine. While he was a medical student, McCrae tutored other students, in order to help pay his tuition. Among McCrae’s students were the first women to graduate from the University of Toronto’s School of Medicine. McCrae also completed a residency at the Robert Garrett Children’s Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland.

In 1902, McCrae became a resident pathologist at Montreal General Hospital. In 1904, he became a pathologist at the Montreal Foundling and Baby Hospital. In 1910, McCrae served as the expedition’s doctor for a canoe trip on Hudson Bay that was organized by the Governor General.

John McCrae and In Flanders Fields

Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, McCrae was assigned to the Canadian Artillery as a field surgeon. In 1915, he was placed in charge of a field hospital, shortly after the Second Battle of Ypres. It was around this time that he wrote In Flanders Fields, following the death of Lt. Alex Helmer, who was a friend and former student.

In June, 1915, McCrae was ordered to Northern France where he supervised the construction of No. 3 Canadian General Hospital at Boulogne-sur-Mer.

The poem In Flanders Fields was first published in Punch on December 8, 1915. McCrae’s poem quickly became one of the most popular poems of the war. In Flanders Fields was quoted extensively in the United States by the Wilson Administration, which was trying to drum up support for American participation in the war.

Shortly after the publication of In Flanders Fields, American English Professor Miona Michaels wrote a poem called We Shall Keep the Faith, in response to In Flanders Fields. She is also recognized as being the first person to wear a red poppy in honour of war veterans. The image of the poppy comes directly from the first two lines of McCrae’s poem, “In Flanders Fields, the poppies blow/ Between the crosses row on row…”

The Legacy of In Flanders Fields

In the decades since the end of World War I, In Flanders Fields has risen to near mythic status in Canada and has become one of the country’s unofficial national symbols. As a result, virtually all Remembrance Day ceremonies held in Canada include a recitation of In Flanders Fields. The importance of In Flanders Fields in Canadian culture is such that in many parts of Canada it has become an informal part of the school curriculum.

Today there are a number of instutions named after John McCrae, including a number of public schools in York Region, Guelph and Ottawa. The Canadian War Museum’s traveling exhibit hall is named The Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae Gallery. Additionally, McCrae’s birthplace in Guelph was turned into museum in 1966. A line from the poem, “To you from failing hands we throw the torch,” can be found on the walls of the Montreal Canadians’ dressing room where it serves to remind players of the legendary hockey team’s own place in Canadian history.

John McCrae died from complications of pneumonia on January 28, 1918.

Sources

Prescott, John F. John McCrae. Canadian Dictionary of Biography Online. Nov.9/09

McCrae, John. In Flanders Fields. Libri Vox. Read by Gordon Mackenzie Nov.9/09

http://monarchs.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_life_of_ethelred_the_unready

The Son of Edgar the Peaceable

Ethelred the Unready was King of England from 978 to 1013 and from 1014 to 1016.

The son of Edgar the Peaceable, Ethelred’s reign was continuously troubled by Viking raids along the English coast. To make matters worse, Elthelred experienced difficulty rallying the kingdom to repel the invaders because of his perceived involvement in the assassination of Edward the Martyr.

Ethelred the Unready

Ethelred’s nickname, “The Unready” is derived from a mistranslation of “Aethelraed Unraed,” which means Ethelred the Illadvised. The epithet is thought to have been used in the primary sources to describe Ethelred’s royal council, the Witan, which was charged with giving the King sound advice. However, both Medieval and modern historians have focused on casting Ethelred as a blundering and incompetent king.

In the 1940s, Anglo-Saxon historian Sir Frank Stenton wrote, “much that has brought the condemnation of historians on King Ethelred may well be due to in the last resort the circumstances under which he became king.”

Following the death King Edgar in 975, Edward the Martyr became king after a power struggle with followers of Ethelred. Ethelred’s supporters contested Edward’s claim to the crown, arguing that the lingering questions concerning his parentage and legitimacy made him unfit to rule.

Danish Raids in Ethelred’s Reign

During the reign of King Edgar, England was at peace following the re-conquest of territory known as the Danelaw held by the Danes in the mid-10th Century. However, in 980, shortly after Ethelred became King, small companies of Danish raiders began attacking English coastal towns. Between 980 and 982, the Danes attacked Hampshire, Thanet, Cheshire, Devon and Cornwall. The raids themselves did little damage and had no lasting impact, but they are significant in English history because they brought the English into contact with Normandy for the first time.

In August, 991, a large Danish fleet appeared off the English coast, near Folkstone. It sailed up the Blackwater River and occupied Northey Island. A short distance away was the town of Maldon. The battle that followed was recorded in the epic poem, The Battle of Maldon, which described the futile efforts of Ealdorman Byrhnoth to hold off the Danes.

In the aftermath of the battle, the Danes were paid a tribute of 10,000 pounds. In spite of this, however, the Danes continued to attack towns and villages along the English coast. By 994, the Danish fleet had grown in size and attempted to attack London. The battle that was fought on the River Thames was inconclusive, and a tribute of 22,000 pounds was paid to the Danes.

The peace did not last long, however, and the Danes began raiding again in 997, attacking Cornwall, Devon, West Somerset and South Wales. The following year, the Danes attacked Kent again. In 1000, the Danes withdrew from England, retreating to Normandy. However, they returned in 1001, attacking Sussex and Devon.

In November, 1002, Ethelred ordered the massacre of all Danish men in England. This was not possible however, as there were a number of Danish strongholds that continued to harass the English until 1012.

In 1013, Sweyn Forkbeard launched an invasion of England with the intent of claiming the English crown. Sweyn quickly conquered England, forcing Ethelred into exile in Normandy. Unfortunately, Sweyn’s rule was short and he died in February, 1014. Ethelred’s restoration is significant because it marked the first recorded example of a written pact between a king and his subjects.

Ethelred’s Death

During the last two years of his reign, Ethelred spent much of his time and energy in a futile attempt to prevent Canute from conquering England. Ethelred died on November 30, 1016. He was buried in the Cathedral of St. Paul in London.

Sources

Godsell, Andrew “Ethelred the Unready” in “History For All” magazine September 2000, republished in “Legends of British History” (2008)

Higham, Nick, The Death of Anglo-Saxon England (1997),

Williams, Ann, Æthelred the Unready: The Ill-Counselled King (2003

http://canadian-settlement.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_life_of_henry_hudson

The Discoverer of Hudson Bay

Henry Hudson was one of the most prominent sailors and navigators of the 17th Century.

Exploring North America, Henry Hudson is credited with discovering the Hudson River, the Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay.

Hudson’s year and date of birth are not known, but he is believed to have been born in London, England. As was traditional in the 16th and 17th Centuries, Hudson most likely would have gone to sea as a cabin boy and eventually worked his way up to become a captain.

When Hudson appears in the historical record, he had already achieved an international reputation.

Henry Hudson’s First Voyage

In 1607, Hudson was hired by the Muscovy Company to find a route through the Northwest Passage to the Orient. At the time, very little was known about the Arctic and it was believed that the three months of almost continuous sunshine during the Arctic summer, was sufficient to melt the ice and allow a ship to sail from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Additionally, England found itself in direct competition with the Dutch, along with the French who had laid claim to the St. Lawrence River Valley in the previous century following the voyages of Jacque Cartier. The English had made no claims in the New World following the discovery of Newfoundland by John Cabot until the founding of Virginia in 1607. As a result the English were eager to discover a shortcut to Asia.

Hudson set sail with a crew of 10 aboard the Hopewell on May 1, 1607. He sailed northeast until he sighted the coast of Greenland on June 13. From there Hudson followed the coast north until he encountered a headland he named Young’s Cape. Near it was a high mound named Mount of God’s Mercy by the crew. On June 27, Hudson sighted the island now known as Spitsbergen, which he called “Newland.” On July 13, Hudson reached 79 degrees 23 minutes north, which at that time was a record for the farthest north. From that point, Hudson continued to sail north, eventually reaching Hakluyt’s Headland on July 16. At that point Hudson tried to sail east, but upon encountering ice, he attempted to sail north once again, planning to sail around the top of Greenland and into the Davis Strait. However, he once again found his way blocked by ice. Hudson had no choice but to turn around and head south. He arrived in England on September 15.

Henry Hudson’s Second Voyage

In 1608, Hudson made a second attempt to find the Northwest Passage, this time by sailing across the top of Russia. As with his previous voyage, however, Hudson found himself in danger of becoming trapped in the ice and was forced to turn back.

Henry Hudson’s Third Voyage

In 1609, Hudson was hired by the Dutch East India Company to find an eastern route to Asia. Hudson’s plan was to sail around the Arctic Ocean until he found an outlet that led into the Pacific. However, as on his voyages of 1607 and 1608, Hudson once again found his way blocked by ice. As a result, Hudson turned south, sailing down Canada’s east coast, eventually reaching what is now New England in the northeastern United States. On September 6, 1609, one of Hudson’s men was killed in an encounter with the natives. On September 11, 1609 Henry Hudson explored the mouth of the Hudson River and became the first European to see the future site of New York City, which would be founded by the Dutch as New Amsterdam. While on the way home, Hudson was stopped by the English, who demanded access to his log books. Eventually, Hudson was able to send his navigation logs and official report to Amsterdam thanks to the intervention of the Dutch Ambassador.

Henry Hudson’s Final Voyage

In 1610, Hudson was able to secure backing for another voyage, this time for the English. Hudson was contracted by the Virginia Company and the British East India Company to once again search for the Northwest Passage. Hudson reached Iceland on May 11 and reached Greenland in early June. Hudson spent the rest of June charting the islands of the Canadian Arctic. On June 24, Hudson entered a wide strait. There was much excitement among the crew, who believed that they had found the entrance to the Northwest Passage. On August 2, after following the northern coast of Labrador, Hudson entered Hudson Bay. He spent the rest of that year charting the east coast of Hudson Bay until the winter freeze-up.

The Death of Henry Hudson

When the ice melted in the spring of 1611, Hudson wanted to keep exploring. However, the crew wanted to return to England. After a series of disagreements, the crew mutinied, forcing Hudson, his teenage son and a number of others into the ship’s boat, which was then cast adrift. Henry Hudson was never seen alive again.

Sources

Neatby, LH.Henry Hudson, The Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, Nov.2/09

Asher, Georg Michael (1860). Henry Hudson the Navigator. Works issued by the Hakluyt Society

Shorto, Russell (2004), The Island at the Center of the World, Vintage Books,

Mancall, Peter C. (2009), Fatal Journey: The Final Expedition of Henry Hudson, Basic Books

http://canadian-settlement.suite101.com/article.cfm/viking_colonization_in_canada

Canada’s First European Colony

Viking attempts to colonize North America began in the late 10th Century, when Norse sailors began exploring the northeast coast of North America.

The Viking colony in Greenland, which was founded by Eric the Red, lasted for 500 years, with last the recorded event occurring in 1408. In comparison, the Viking settlements established on Canada’s east coast lasted less than two years and did not evolve into permanent colonies. Nevertheless, it is believed that seasonal voyages to Newfoundland and Labrador may have continued until sometime in the 1300s. These voyages, usually sealing expeditions or foraging trips, would have made the Greenland Vikings the first Europeans to visit the New World on a regular basis.

The Vikings in Greenland

According to the Saga of the Icelanders, Greenland was first settled by Eric the Red, sometime in the 980s. Eric was banished from Iceland for committing manslaughter. He spent three years exploring Greenland, at the end of which time, he returned to Iceland seeking colonists to settle in Greenland.

At its peak, Eric’s Greenland colony had a population of approximately 5,000 in two settlements, along with several hundred farms. Greenland was also used by the Vikings as a jumping off point for expeditions to Canada’s Atlantic coast.

Viking Activities in Canada

It is believed that Canada’s east coast was referred to as Vinland by the Vikings, from about 1000 onward.

Archaeological evidence unearthed in 1960 conclusively proved that the Vikings visited North America 500 years before the voyages of John Cabot and Henry Hudson.

Vinland

The name Vinland is traditionally interpreted one of two ways. According to some sources, Vinland got its name due to the wild grapes found growing in the region. More recently, Vinland has been interpreted as meaning pasture land. This definition is believed to have been derived from the Norwegian word for farm.

Vinland first appears in the historical record in 1075, when the voyages of Eric the Red and Leif Ericsson were written down by Adam of Bremen in his book, Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis

Most of the information describing the Viking activities on the east coast of Canada is found in two sources, the Saga of Eric the Red and the Saga of the Greenlanders. However, both of these Sagas were written 250 years after the events they describe. Therefore, they are open to a wide variety of interpretations. When read together they describe two separate attempts to establish a Norse presence in North America. However, neither colony lasted more than two years. The exact reason why the colonies failed is not known, but disputes among the colonists, disease and conflicts with the First Nations, called Skraelings by the Vikings have all been put forth by experts at one time or another.

The primary sources claim that after the colonization of Greenland, a merchant named Bjarni Herjolfson set sail from Iceland to visit his father in Greenland. During the voyage, a storm blew up and Bjarni was blown off course. When the storm abated, he found himself off the coast of eastern Canada, most likely somewhere off the coast of what is now Labrador. Not wanting to spend the winter in the new land he had discovered, Bjarni did not land and instead continued on to Greenland, where he told the story to Leif Ericsson, who mounted an expedition with the intent of founding a colony.

The exact location of Vinland is not known today. Around the turn of the 20th Century, the few historians who took the Icelandic Sagas seriously believed that Vinland was located somewhere in New England. Newfoundland historian, William Munn argued that Vinland was located somewhere on Canada’s east coast. Munn’s hypothesis was proven correct in 1960 when Norwegian archaeologists Helge and Anne Stine Ingstad unearthed conclusive evidence of a Viking settlement in L’Anse aux Meadows, on the northern tip of Newfoundland.

L’Anse aux Meadows

The settlement uncovered at L’Anse aux Meadows is believed by some researchers to be a gateway settlement. They argue that this site was a staging point for expeditions further south. This theory is supported by the discovery of butternuts at L’Anse aux Meadows. Butternuts can not be grown north of the St. Lawrence River.

However, it has also been argued that the establishment of settlements farther south would have been unlikely, as they would have been too far from the Viking homelands in Northern Europe. Additionally, Canada’s Maritime Provinces and the New England area in the United States also lacked sufficient quantities of iron, which would have been used by the Vikings to make weapons, armour and tools. It is also believed that grapes may have grown in Newfoundland during the time Vikings attempted to settle there. In 2002, a vineyard was successfully established in Gambo, Newfoundland. The timeframe in which the Vikings visited Canada also corresponds to the Medieval Warm Period, in which there were vineyards in northern England and along the Baltic coast.

Today, the Viking settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Sources

Irwin, Constance; Strange Footprints on the Land; Harper&Row, New York, 1980;

Anderson, Rasmus B.; John Bruno Hare, ed., February 18th, 2004 (1906). “Norse voyages in the tenth and following centuries“. The Norse Discovery of America. Nov.4/09

Ingstad, Helge; Ingstad, Anne Stine (2001). The Viking Discovery of America: The Excavation of a Norse Settlement in L’Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland. Checkmark Books.

Jones, Gwyn (1986). The Norse Atlantic Saga: Being the Norse Voyages of Discovery and Settlement to Iceland, Greenland, and North America. Oxford University Press

http://bonds.suite101.com/article.cfm/what_is_a_bond_market

An Introduction to Fixed Income Investment

A bond market, also known as a fixed income market, is a financial investment market where participants buy and sell debt securities.

As of 2008, the total international bond market was believed to be worth $67 trillion. Of that, the American bond market is thought to have a total net worth of $33.5 trillion.

References to the term “bond market” usually refer to government bond markets. This is generally the case because of their size and liquidity, as well as their lack of credit risk. Additionally, due to the inverse relationship between bond valuation and interest rates, bond markets are sometimes used as an indicator of sudden changes in interest rates.

Bond Market Structure

In most countries, bond markets are decentralized. The reason for this is because, unlike stock exchanges or futures markets, no two bonds are exactly alike.

One of the consequences of this decentralized market structure is that trading in bonds can incur higher costs at the expense of less liquidity in some cases.

In their 2004 paper, Secondary Trading Costs in the Municipal Bond Market, Lawrence Harriss and Michael Piwowar concluded that, “municipal bonds are substantially more expensive than similar sized equity trades.” They argued that this difference in price is a result of the lack of transparency in the bond market.

Types of Bonds

Bond markets are divided into a number of sub categories, depending on what type of bond is being traded.

• Corporate bonds
• Government bonds
• Municipal bonds

Bond Investors

Similarly, investors who use bond markets can also be divided into a number of sub-categories.

• Instutitonal investors
• Governments
• Bond traders
• Private investors

Because of the lack of liquidity in the bond market, private investors only make up a small portion of the bond market in the United States.

The Global Bond Market

In 2008, the size of the global bond market increased to $83 trillion. Of that amount, 71% consisted of domestic markets. In the United States, a quarter of the market was composed of mortgage-backed bonds. In Europe, bond prices have been significantly affected by public debt, where government spending is set to increase for the foreseeable future.

Bond Market Instability

One of the advantages of bonds over other types of market investment is that they are not subject to the same volatility as stocks or currency exchanges. Principle and interest is delivered according to a set schedule.

However, participants who buy and sell bonds before they reach maturity run a number of risks, including sudden changes in interest rates. High interest rates can depress bond prices, while low interest rates can inflate them. This is an example of how bond markets can be affected by a country’s over all economic policy.

Bond markets can also be affected by the interpretation of economic indicators. If the consensus reached by economists is uniform, there may be very little movement. However, if there is no consensus, bond prices may be significantly affected as investors attempt to interpret the data on their own. This is also compounded by the fact that the importance of economic indicators can vary depending on the stage of the business cycle.

Tracking Bond Performance

There are a number of bond indices, which exist for the purpose of managing and tracking bond portfolios. Some of the better known bond indices include the Barclays Aggregate, the Citigroup Broad Grade Investment Index and the Merrill Lynch Domestic Master.

Their long-term stability and lack of credit risk make bond markets and popular choice for cautious investors.

Sources

Bond Market Association. Oct. 31/09

NYSE Bonds press release NYSE Bonds. Oct.31/09

M&GOutstanding World Bond Market Debt Bond Market Association.Oct.31/09

Outstanding U.S. Bond Market Debt Investments – Bond Vigilantes – Are the bond vigilantes vigilant enough?, Oct.31/09

Bloomberg – Bond Vigilantes Push U.S. Treasuries Into Bear Market, Oct.31/09 

http://canadian-settlement.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_life_of_john_cabot

John Cabot, Canada's First Modern Explorer

Born Giovanni Caboto, John Cabot was an Italian explorer and navigator, who is traditionally believed to be the first modern European to see what, is now called Canada.

John Cabot’s name and birth place are matters of conjecture among historians. In modern Italian he is Giovanni Caboto, or John Cabot in English. Only one set of documents has ever been found with his signature on it, which he signed Zuan Chabotto.

Cabot’s birth place is also the subject of speculation. He is believed to have been born either in Central Italy, or in Northern Italy’s Castigilione region. The fact that his son, Sebastiano, believed that his father was born in Northern Italy suggests that there may be some truth to these speculations.

John Cabot’s Early Life

Little is known of John Cabot’s life before the year 1470. He is first mentioned in Venetian city records when he joined the confraternity of St. John the Evangelist. In 1476, Cabot was granted Venetian citizenship. At the time, foreigners intending to become citizens of Venice could only do so after 15 years of residency in the city, which suggests that Cabot must have moved there sometime in the early 1460s.

Following this, Cabot became a merchant, sailing all over the Eastern Mediterranean. In 1484, Cabot married a woman recorded only as Mattea, eventually giving birth to three sons. In the late 1480s, Cabot experienced financial difficulties and left Venice almost broke. He first went to Valencia, then Seville, where he tried to secure funding for an Atlantic expedition. John Cabot eventually moved to England in 1495.

John Cabot in England

In 1494 the Treaty of Tordesillas drew an imaginary line down the world, dividing it between Portugal and Spain. Many of the countries in Northern Europe saw this as an act of insolence, believing that the Spanish wanted the New World for themselves. As a result, King Henry VII may have been eager to claim land in the New World for England while he had the opportunity to do so, and gave Cabot royal consent for an expedition to the New World.

Like Christopher Columbus, Cabot planned on sailing due west until he made land fall in the New World. However, Cabot believed that by sailing a more northerly route, he could make the same voyage in less time.

John Cabot’s Expeditions to the New WorldJohn Cabot’s First Expedition

Cabot spent the rest of 1495 making preparations for his expedition, departing from Bristol in 1496. Cabot’s first expedition was aborted shortly after leaving port however, due to disputes with the crew.

John Cabot’s Second Expedition

In 1497, Cabot prepared a second expedition, which sailed from Bristol some time in May. However, not all of the details of the voyage are known for sure. Cabot’s ship is known to have been the Matthew, and he is thought to have taken a crew of 18 to 20 sailors. At fifty tons, the Matthew would have required a crew of eight to ten, however, given the nature of the voyage, additional manpower may have seemed to be a reasonable precaution. In addition to Cabot there was also an unnamed Burgundian and a Genoese barber, who also doubled as the ship’s surgeon.

The Matthew eventually arrived somewhere off the northeast coast of North America on June 24, 1497, .Newfoundland is traditionally believed to have been Cabot’s first land fall in North America, however, Halifax, Cape Breton Island and Maine have all been proposed as alternate initial landing sites at one time or another.

Cabot is only believed to have set foot on land once during this expedition and he did not advance “beyond the shooting distance of a crossbow.” Even though he did not have any direct contact with the First Nations, Cabot did find signs of human habitation, including the remains of a fire, footprints, tools, and fishing nets. After taking on fresh water and raising the banners of the King of England and the Pope, and claiming this “new found land” for England, Cabot then re-boarded the Matthew and returned to Bristol.

When he returned to England, Cabot went immediately to see the King at Woodstock Palace where he was given 10 pounds, which was equivalent to two years pay. In December of that year, Cabot received a pension of 20 pounds, and in February, 1498 royal consent was given for a return to the New World.

John Cabot’s Third Expedition

According to the Great Chronicle of London, Cabot sailed from Bristol with a fleet of five ships in May, 1498. Some of Cabot’s ships were reported to be carrying merchandise, which may have been intended for trade.

Cabot’s third expedition also carried a group of monks who were intent on converting the First Nations to Christianity. Like the Vikings, it is believed they established a colony in what is now Newfoundland. British researchers are currently studying the historical record in an attempt to determine a possible location for this settlement, which is believed to contain the only medieval church built in Canada.

John Cabot’s Death

John Cabot is believed to have died either during or shortly after completing this voyage, sometime in 1500.

Sources

R. A. Skelton, ‘CABOT (Caboto), JOHN (Giovanni)’, Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online (1966)

O. Hartig, ‘John and Sebastian Cabot’, The Catholic Encyclopedia (1908)J.A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery Under Henry VII (Hakluyt Society, Second Series, No. 120, CUP, 1962)

http://monarchs.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_life_of_edward_the_martyr

The Son of Edgar the Peaceable

Edward the Martyr was the King of England from 975 until 978.

The son of Edgar the Peaceable, Edward was not originally designated as Edgar’s heir. However, Edgar’s death triggered a power struggle for the throne that nearly resulted in civil war.

Edward’s Childhood

The exact date of Edward’s birth is not known, but given that he is described as being a teenager when he claimed the throne in 975, it is speculated that he was born sometime in the early 960s. All that can be said for certain is that King Edgar was his father and that the queen was not his mother. Edward is thought to be the product of an encounter between King Edgar and a nun that he seduced around the time of his coronation.

According to a royal charter written during the reign of King Edgar that has been dated to the year 966, Edmund Ironside is described as Edgar’s legitimate son, while Edward is merely acknowledged as Edgar’s son. This would seem to confirm that Edward was illegitimate.

During his rule, Edgar was regarded as a strong, but unpopular king. In spite of opposition from the Church and certain factions within the nobility, Edgar forced through a number of monastic reforms that resulted in numerous gifts of land to the Benedictine monks in England. They also resulted in the displacement of a number of lesser nobles, some of whom were completely dispossessed of their lands. At the same time large numbers of secular clergy also forced the ordained priests from their parishes.

Following the death of King Edgar, the discontent these actions had stirred up, coupled with a falling out among the supporters of Edgar’s reforms led to many of Edgar’s monastic reforms being overturned. Edgar’s death also caused a power struggle between Edward and his half-brother Ethelred the Unready.

King Edward the Martyr

Edward was crowned king at Kingston-Upon-Thames, sometime in 975.

Following Edward’s coronation, a comet appeared and that “famine and manifold disturbances” were the result. Around the same time Ealdorman Oslac, who was effectively the King of Northumbria in all but name, was exiled for unknown reasons.

In some parts of the kingdom, the ordained priests returned, forcing the secular clergy from their parishes. They also rewrote many of the leases and loans so that much of the land appropriated for the monasteries during the reign of King Edgar was returned to its original owners.

Very few royal charters have survived from the reign of Edward the Martyr. As a result, much of the information depicting his time on the throne comes from unreliable second hand sources. Based on what is known, Edward experienced extensive opposition to his rule in the north and in the English Midlands. This has been determined by the fact that during Edward’s reign coins were minted locally in York and Lincoln, as opposed to being minted only in London as during the reign of Edgar the Peaceable.

Edward’s Death and Canonization

As with most everything else during Edward’s reign, very little is known about his death. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Edward was murdered in 978 at Corfe Castle. Later sources claim that Edward was martyred, probably on the orders of King Ethelred’s mother.

A year after his death, Edward’s body was disinterred and reburied at Shaftsbury Abby, which was founded by Alfred the Great.

The rise of Edward’s cult, and his eventual canonization, have been interpreted a number of different ways by historians over the centuries. Some have seen it purely as a popular grassroots movement, while others have tried to argue that Edward’s canonization was politically motivated.

The location of Edward’s remains was lost during the reign of Henry VIII and was not rediscovered until 1931. Due to a conflict of interests between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Anglican Church, Edward’s remains were stored in a bank vault in Wonking, Surrey until 1970, when they were reburied in near-by Brookwood Cemetery.

Sources

Ridyard, Susan J. (1988), The Royal Saints of Anglo-Saxon England: A Study of West Saxon and East Anglian Cults, Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Fisher, D. J. V. (1952), “The Anti-Monastic Reaction in the Reign of Edward the Martyr“, Cambridge Historical Journal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) 10 (3): 254–270,Oct.

Higham, Nick (1997), The Death of Anglo-Saxon England, Stroud: Sutton

Williams, Ann (2003), Æthelred the Unready: The Ill-Counselled King, London: Hambeldon & London

http://catholic-saints.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_life_of_saint_damien_of_molokai

The Patron Saint of Hawaii

The Patron Saint of Hawaii

 

Saint Damien of Molokai was a Catholic priest from Belgium as well as a Christian missionary in Hawaii, who lived and died in the 19th Century.

Saint Damien won a reputation for his ministry to people suffering from leprosy, who were placed under medical quarantine on the Island of Molokai in Hawaii.

Saint Damien’s Formative Years

Saint Damien was born Jozef de Veuster, on January 3, 1840, to a Flemish corn merchant in the village of Tremlo.

He went to college in Braine-le-Comte and then became a novitiate with the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary, taking the name Brother Damianus, in reference to St. Damien, an early Christian saint who was known for performing miracles.

Saint Damien sought to become an ordered priest, like his brother Auguste. However, he was not sufficiently educated for this. Nevertheless, he was considered very intelligent by his superiors and in 1864, he was sent to Hawaii to serve as a missionary.

Saint Damien’s Ministry in Hawaii

When he arrived in Honolulu, in March, 1864, Damien found Hawaii in the middle of a public health crisis. Sailors had brought diseases from Europe and North America that native Hawaiians had no immunity to. Of particular concern was leprosy. At the time, leprosy was thought to be both incurable and highly contagious. In 1865, the Hawaiian Government passed measures calling for the relocation of leprosy patients to the Island of Molokai.

There the Hawaiian Government built a village, provided food and supplies for growing crops. However, the degenerative nature of leprosy made this almost impossible and the village soon fell into disrepair.

Around the same time Bishop Louis Desire Maigret believed that the lepers on Molokai needed a priest to see to their physical and spiritual needs and called for volunteers. Saint Damien was one of four priests who volunteered and took turns tending to the Lepers on Molokai. He arrived on Molokai on May 10, 1873.

Father Damien’s arrival is generally seen as the turning point for Hawaii’s leper colony. He ensured the enforcement of basic laws, made the homes of the colony’s residents more liveable, organized farms, built schools, chapels, and even coffins. Saint Damien would stay on Molokai for 16 years.

By 1884, Father Damien had contracted leprosy, or Hansen’s Disease, and was dying. In spite of this, he continued to build homes and schools, as well as plan for the continuation of the programs he had started, after his death. Father Damien died on April 15, 1889.

The Canonization of Father Damien

In 1977, Father Damien was declared Venerable by Pope Paul VI, and then Blessed by Pope John Paul II in 1995. The case for Father Damien’s canonization was then referred to the Congregation of Divine Worship and the Disciples of the Sacrament, who then placed him on the Church’s liturgical calendar as an optional memorial.

In April, 2008, the Vatican accepted the required two miracles as evidence of Father Damien’s sanctity. In February, 2009 it was announced that he would be canonized as Saint Damien of Molokai, the patron saint of Hawaii, and an intercessor for lepers, AIDS patients, and outcasts. He was canonized on Rosary Sunday, October 11, 2009.

Sources

Daws, Gavan (1984). Holy Man: Father Damien of Molokai. Honolulu: Eynikel, Hilde (1999). Molokai: the Story of Father Damien. Staten Island: Alba House.

Stewart, Richard (2000). Leper Priest of Moloka’i. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press

http://modern-us-history.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_life_of_warren_g_harding

Warren G Harding, the 29th President of the United States

The 29th President of the United States

Before his nomination as the Republican candidate, Warren G Harding said, “America’s present need is not heroics, but healing….”

Warren G Harding was born in Marion, Ohio in 1865. He eventually became the owner and publisher of a newspaper and married a widow named Florence Kling De Wolf. Harding was a trustee in Trinity Baptist Church, as well as a director of a number of important businesses and charitable organizations in Marion, Ohio.

He was also the organizer of the Citizen Coronet Band, which played at both Democratic and Republican rallies.

Warren G Harding’s Early Career

Harding’s unwavering republicanism and his strong speaking voice, along with his willingness to become part of the political machine allowed him to go far in Ohio politics. He served as both an Ohio state senator and as Lieutenant Governor. In 1912, he gave the nominating address for President Taft. In 1914, he was elected to the United States Senate.

In 1920, Harry Daugherty, one of Harding’s Ohio supporters began promoting Harding as a possible Republican candidate, arguing that “he looked like a President.”

When the preferred Republican candidates became deadlocked, a group of Republican senators hijacked the convention and put Harding’s name forward for consideration. He won the nomination and went on to win the election in a landslide, receiving 60% of the popular vote.

President Harding

Many of the Republicans in Congress easily got their bills signed by President Harding. He also eliminated many of the restrictions that had been put in place by Woodrow Wilson during World War I, in addition to cutting taxes and establishing a Federal budget system.

By 1923, the post-war economic depression seemed to be giving way to the prosperity that would later come to characterize the Roaring 20s. Newspapers praised him as a wise statesman who was actually living up to his campaign promise of “less government in business and more business in government.”

Behind the façade, however, there were problems in Harding’s Administration. A number of Harding’s friends were using their positions in Harding’s government for their personal benefit. Harding complained that, “my…friends…they’re the ones keeping me walking the floor nights.”

That summer, Harding embarked on a tour of the western United States. He was trying to drum up support for the Republican Party in anticipation of the next Presidential election, taking Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover with him. Harding wanted to go public with the growing scandal in his administration, but Hoover urged caution, fearing that the political repercussions would damage Harding’s chances in the election.

The Death of Warren G Harding

Unfortunately, Harding did not live long enough to find out what the voters thought of the corruption in the Harding White House. He died of a heart attack in San Francisco, in August, 1923 at the age of 58. Calvin Coolidge became the 30th President of the United States.

Sourcees

Warren G Harding.The White House. US Government. Oct.20/09

http://canadian-settlement.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_voyageurs_of_new_france

Canada’s Runners of the Woods

The Coureur des Bois, or Runners of the Woods, were a group of individuals who traded furs with the First Nations in New France in the 17th Century.

During the 17th Century, the Canadian fur trade was a very lucrative industry in New France. Competition was stiff and many settlers were willing to undertake the dangerous journey through Iroquois territory to trade with New France’s First Nation allies.

The Origins of the Voyageurs

The Coureur des Bois were frowned upon by the royal authorities in Montreal because they did not want the settlers to leave the developing agricultural areas to make their fortunes as trappers and fur traders. The colonial government preferred to have the First Nations bring the furs to trading posts where they could exchange them for trade goods and other supplies.

By 1681, however, the French colonial authorities found themselves unable to stop the Coureur des Bois. In response they sought to control them instead. They legalized a limited number of Coureur des Bois by establishing a system of permits. In doing so the royal authorities created a second generation of Coureur des Bois, which they called Voyageurs, or Travellers.

The result was that the fur trade was controlled by a small number of Montreal merchants who held the permits for the Voyageurs. Around the same time, New France began to expand, in an attempt to dominate the fur trade. In conjunction with this, the royal authorities in Montreal built a series of forts and trading posts to protect the trade routes. At the same time, they also negotiated treaties with the First Nations for access to their furs and the right to trap on their land. The result was that the Voyageurs started as independent traders, but gradually became hired labourers.

The term “Voyageur” referred mainly to the men who manned the canoes that carried trade goods, furs and other supplies. The Voyageurs travelled all over North America to Lachine, near Montreal, following well known routes that had evolved from native hunting trails. The Voyageurs who travelled this route exclusively were derisively called, “Mangeurs du Lard,” or Pork Eaters, in reference to their diet of salt pork. Some Voyageurs became known as “Hivernants,” or Winterers, and “Homme du Nord,” which meant Men of the North, because they stayed in the back country during the winter and transported furs and other supplies to more distant forts and trading posts. The Voyageurs also served as scouts and guides for explorers, as well as during the French and Indian War, due to their extensive knowledge of the back country and their reputation as excellent woodsmen. The majority of the Voyageurs were French-Canadian or Metis and came from the area surrounding Montreal and the banks of the St. Lawrence River.

The Voyageurs and the Hudson Bay Company

By the early 19th Century, the trading companies operating in New France, now called Quebec, had come to rely on the Voyageurs as highly valued employees. The Voyageurs became instrumental in retrieving furs from all over North America. Of particular importance was the Athabasca Region, where the North West Company and the Hudson Bay Company were engaged in trapping the best beaver pelts on the continent.

At first, the Hudson Bay Company was content to allow the First Nations to bring their pelts to the Hudson Bay Company’s string of trading posts along the shores of Hudson Bay. However, the North West Company began to send Voyageurs into the area to hunt and trap. The First Nations preferred this, because it allowed them to trade their pelts more easily.

In 1810, Colin Robertson, a former employee of the North West Company and a veteran of the Canadian fur trade, wrote a letter to the directors of the Hudson Bay Company, in which he urged them to hire Voyageurs of their own. “I would warmly recommend to your notice the Canadians; these people I believe, are the best voyageurs in the world.”

However, it would not be until 1815 that the Hudson Bay Company would begin hiring large numbers of Voyageurs. Robertson was placed in charge of the expedition to the Athabasca Region, where the directors of the Hudson Bay Company hoped to re-establish the company’s presence. However, Robertson experienced delays setting out from Montreal because he was finding it difficult to hire enough Voyageurs for the journey. This was because the North West Company was actively trying to stop the expedition.

The Legacy of the Voyageurs

Today the Voyageurs are the stuff of legends, particularly in Quebec where they are still celebrated in folklore and songs. The reality was that the Voyageur’s life was filled with back-breaking labour. They often worked for 14 hours a day and were expected to paddle at a rate of 55 strokes per minute. They carried up to 180 pounds of pelts on their backs, and, ironically, few could swim. If they weren’t ruptured by their loads, they were often drowned in rapids or storms. Few Voyageurs left written accounts of themselves, but they played a critical role in opening Canada for settlement.

Sources

Englebert, Robert. Diverging Identities and Converging Interests: Corporate Competition, Desertion and Voyageur Agency, 1815-1818. Manitoba History, 2007, 55, 2.

Englebert, Robert. Diverging Identities and Converging Interests: Corporate Competition, Desertion and Voyageur Agency, 1815-1818. Manitoba History, 2007, 55, 1. Library jnd Archives Canada (LAC), Hudson’s Bay Company

Brown, Craig, editor. The Illustrated History of Canada. Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys Ltd., 1987.

Podruchny, Carolyn. Making the Voyageur World : Travelers and Traders in the North American Fur Trade. Toronto : University of Toronto Press, 2006.